THE MAP OF ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
Saturday, May 30, 2009
THE MAP OF ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
India (Hindi: भारत) [1] is the largest country in the Indian Subcontinent and shares borders with Pakistan to the west, China and Nepal to the north, Bhutan to the north-east, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. Sri Lanka, the Maldives and Indonesia lie to the south-east in the Indian Ocean. It is the seventh largest country in the world by area and, with over a billion people, is second only to China in population. It's an extremely diverse country, with vast differences in geography, climate, culture, language and ethnicity across its expanse, and prides itself on being the largest democracy on Earth.
Befitting her size and population, India's culture and heritage are a rich amalgam of the past and the present: From the civilizations, fascinating religions, variety of languages (more than 200!) and monuments that have been present for thousands of years to the modern technology, economy, and media that arises as she opens up to a globalised world, India will never cease to awe and fascinate the visitor.
History
The Indus: Cradle of the Indian Civilization
Indians date their history from the Vedic Period, when the Vedas, the oldest and holiest books of Hinduism, were compiled. There has been great dispute for the past 150 years, over the dating of the Vedic period based on the 'Aryan Invasion Theory', which claims that the Vedic people came from Europe / Central Asia and spread their language and culture among ancient Indians. The earliest archaeological traces are from 7000 BC Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) which was one of the advanced, planned urban towns of the "Indus Valley Civilization". This civilization peaked around 3300 BC before declining and disintegrating around 1900 BC, possibly due to drought & geological disturbances. The excavations reveal an extremely advanced urban civilization, although there was no evidence of weapons nor fortifications.
The Vedic civilization influences India to this very day, through the religion of Hinduism, as some of its rituals took shape during the Vedic period. Most North-Indian languages come from Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas. These languages together with Sanskrit are members of the Indo-European group of languages. In the 1st millennium BC, various schools of thought in philosophy developed, enriching Hinduism greatly. Most of them claimed to derive from the Vedas. However, two of these schools (Buddhism and Jainism) questioned the authority of the Vedas and they are now recognized as separate religions, though the Buddha is revered by most Hindus as an incarnation of Vishnu the preserver.
Pilgrims bathing, Varanasi
The Period of the Great Empires: India's Golden Age
Many great empires were formed between 500 BC and AD 500, among them the Mauryas and the Guptas (which was the Golden Age of India). This period saw a gradual decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The practice of Buddhism, in particular, disappeared from the Indian mainland, though Buddha himself was incorporated into the Hindu pantheon. Jainism continues to be practised by a significant number who are ambivalent about whether they consider themselves Hindus or not.
Islamic incursions started in the 8th century in the form of raids. Gradually the raiders started staying as rulers, and soon much of North India was ruled by Muslims. The most important of the Muslim rulers were the Mughals, who established an empire that at its peak covered almost the entire subcontinent (save the southern and eastern extremities), while the major Hindu force that survived in the North were the Rajputs. Eventually the Mughal empire declined, partly under attack from the Marathas who established a short-lived confederacy that was almost as big as the Mughal Empire. The Rajput and Mughal period of North India was the golden age for Indian art, architecture, and literature, produced the monumental gems of Rajasthan, and the Taj Mahal. Hindi and Urdu also took root in medieval North India. During the Islamic period, some Hindus also converted to Islam, either by force, to escape the low social status that the caste system imposed on them, or simply to gain the benefits of being aligned with their rulers. Today, some 13% of the Indian population and an overwhelming majority of Pakistan are Muslim.
South India followed its own course of development, being less affected by the Islamic invasion. The period from 500 AD to 1600 AD is called the classical period dominated by great South Indian kingdoms. Prominent among them were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and Vijayanagar empires who ruled from present day Karnataka and the Pallavas, Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas who ruled from present day Tamil Nadu & Kerala. Tamil, Kannada and Telugu literature flourished during this time and has been prolific ever since. Some of the grandest Hindu and Jain monuments that exist in India were built during this time in South and East India, which were less subject to Muslim religious prohibitions.
Subjugation by the English: India under Colonalism
European traders started visiting India beginning in the late 16th century. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had, one way or the other assumed political control of virtually all of India. There was an uprising by Indian rulers in 1857 which was suppressed, but which prompted the British government to make India a part of the empire. Many Indians converted to Christianity during the period, for pretty much the same reasons as they converted to Islam, though forcible conversions ended in British India after 1857, after the British Government took over from the East India Company, and when Queen Victoria promised to respect the religious faiths of Indians.
Non-violent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru led to independence in 1947. However, independence was simultaneously granted to the secular state of India and the smaller Islamic state of Pakistan, and the orgy of Hindu-Muslim bloodletting that followed Partition led to the deaths of at least half a million and the migration of 12-14 million people.
The Formation of the World's Largest Democracy: Independence at Last
Free India under Nehru adopted a democratically-governed, centrally-planned economy. These policies were aimed at attaining "self-sufficiency", and to a large extent made India what it is today. India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains by the 1970s, ensuring that the large-scale famines that had been common are now history. However these policies also led to shortages, slow growth and large-scale corruption. After a balance-of-payments crisis in 1991, the country adopted free-market reforms which have continued at a meandering pace ever since, fueling strong growth. The IT and the business outsourcing industries have been the drivers for the growth, while manufacturing and agriculture, which have not experienced reforms, are lagging. The benefits have not trickled down to the entire population, however; 60% of Indians live on agriculture and around 25% remain in poverty.
Relations with Pakistan have been frosty. They have fought three (or four, if you count the Kargil conflict of 1999) wars, mostly over the status of Kashmir, and the third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh. China and India went to war in 1962 over a border dispute. Viewed as a "betrayal" in India, it still rankles. Though current relations are peaceful, there is still military rivalry and no land crossings are allowed between the two countries. The security concerns over Pakistan and China prompted India to test nuclear weapons twice (including the 1974 tests described as "peaceful explosions"). India wants to be accepted as a legitimate nuclear power and is campaigning for a permanent Security Council seat.
India is proud of its democratic record. Constitutional government and democratic freedoms have been safeguarded throughout its 60 years as an independent country, except for an 18 month interlude in 1975-1977, when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency, suspending elections and civil liberties.
Current concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan, over-population, corruption, environmental degradation, continuing poverty, and ethnic and religious strife. But the current obsession, at least among the educated elite, is over whether India will be able overtake China in economic growth.
Befitting her size and population, India's culture and heritage are a rich amalgam of the past and the present: From the civilizations, fascinating religions, variety of languages (more than 200!) and monuments that have been present for thousands of years to the modern technology, economy, and media that arises as she opens up to a globalised world, India will never cease to awe and fascinate the visitor.
History
The Indus: Cradle of the Indian Civilization
Indians date their history from the Vedic Period, when the Vedas, the oldest and holiest books of Hinduism, were compiled. There has been great dispute for the past 150 years, over the dating of the Vedic period based on the 'Aryan Invasion Theory', which claims that the Vedic people came from Europe / Central Asia and spread their language and culture among ancient Indians. The earliest archaeological traces are from 7000 BC Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) which was one of the advanced, planned urban towns of the "Indus Valley Civilization". This civilization peaked around 3300 BC before declining and disintegrating around 1900 BC, possibly due to drought & geological disturbances. The excavations reveal an extremely advanced urban civilization, although there was no evidence of weapons nor fortifications.
The Vedic civilization influences India to this very day, through the religion of Hinduism, as some of its rituals took shape during the Vedic period. Most North-Indian languages come from Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas. These languages together with Sanskrit are members of the Indo-European group of languages. In the 1st millennium BC, various schools of thought in philosophy developed, enriching Hinduism greatly. Most of them claimed to derive from the Vedas. However, two of these schools (Buddhism and Jainism) questioned the authority of the Vedas and they are now recognized as separate religions, though the Buddha is revered by most Hindus as an incarnation of Vishnu the preserver.
Pilgrims bathing, Varanasi
The Period of the Great Empires: India's Golden Age
Many great empires were formed between 500 BC and AD 500, among them the Mauryas and the Guptas (which was the Golden Age of India). This period saw a gradual decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The practice of Buddhism, in particular, disappeared from the Indian mainland, though Buddha himself was incorporated into the Hindu pantheon. Jainism continues to be practised by a significant number who are ambivalent about whether they consider themselves Hindus or not.
Islamic incursions started in the 8th century in the form of raids. Gradually the raiders started staying as rulers, and soon much of North India was ruled by Muslims. The most important of the Muslim rulers were the Mughals, who established an empire that at its peak covered almost the entire subcontinent (save the southern and eastern extremities), while the major Hindu force that survived in the North were the Rajputs. Eventually the Mughal empire declined, partly under attack from the Marathas who established a short-lived confederacy that was almost as big as the Mughal Empire. The Rajput and Mughal period of North India was the golden age for Indian art, architecture, and literature, produced the monumental gems of Rajasthan, and the Taj Mahal. Hindi and Urdu also took root in medieval North India. During the Islamic period, some Hindus also converted to Islam, either by force, to escape the low social status that the caste system imposed on them, or simply to gain the benefits of being aligned with their rulers. Today, some 13% of the Indian population and an overwhelming majority of Pakistan are Muslim.
South India followed its own course of development, being less affected by the Islamic invasion. The period from 500 AD to 1600 AD is called the classical period dominated by great South Indian kingdoms. Prominent among them were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and Vijayanagar empires who ruled from present day Karnataka and the Pallavas, Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas who ruled from present day Tamil Nadu & Kerala. Tamil, Kannada and Telugu literature flourished during this time and has been prolific ever since. Some of the grandest Hindu and Jain monuments that exist in India were built during this time in South and East India, which were less subject to Muslim religious prohibitions.
Subjugation by the English: India under Colonalism
European traders started visiting India beginning in the late 16th century. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had, one way or the other assumed political control of virtually all of India. There was an uprising by Indian rulers in 1857 which was suppressed, but which prompted the British government to make India a part of the empire. Many Indians converted to Christianity during the period, for pretty much the same reasons as they converted to Islam, though forcible conversions ended in British India after 1857, after the British Government took over from the East India Company, and when Queen Victoria promised to respect the religious faiths of Indians.
Non-violent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru led to independence in 1947. However, independence was simultaneously granted to the secular state of India and the smaller Islamic state of Pakistan, and the orgy of Hindu-Muslim bloodletting that followed Partition led to the deaths of at least half a million and the migration of 12-14 million people.
The Formation of the World's Largest Democracy: Independence at Last
Free India under Nehru adopted a democratically-governed, centrally-planned economy. These policies were aimed at attaining "self-sufficiency", and to a large extent made India what it is today. India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains by the 1970s, ensuring that the large-scale famines that had been common are now history. However these policies also led to shortages, slow growth and large-scale corruption. After a balance-of-payments crisis in 1991, the country adopted free-market reforms which have continued at a meandering pace ever since, fueling strong growth. The IT and the business outsourcing industries have been the drivers for the growth, while manufacturing and agriculture, which have not experienced reforms, are lagging. The benefits have not trickled down to the entire population, however; 60% of Indians live on agriculture and around 25% remain in poverty.
Relations with Pakistan have been frosty. They have fought three (or four, if you count the Kargil conflict of 1999) wars, mostly over the status of Kashmir, and the third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh. China and India went to war in 1962 over a border dispute. Viewed as a "betrayal" in India, it still rankles. Though current relations are peaceful, there is still military rivalry and no land crossings are allowed between the two countries. The security concerns over Pakistan and China prompted India to test nuclear weapons twice (including the 1974 tests described as "peaceful explosions"). India wants to be accepted as a legitimate nuclear power and is campaigning for a permanent Security Council seat.
India is proud of its democratic record. Constitutional government and democratic freedoms have been safeguarded throughout its 60 years as an independent country, except for an 18 month interlude in 1975-1977, when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency, suspending elections and civil liberties.
Current concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan, over-population, corruption, environmental degradation, continuing poverty, and ethnic and religious strife. But the current obsession, at least among the educated elite, is over whether India will be able overtake China in economic growth.
WASHINGTON, DC
In 1790, the rivalry of Northern and Southern states for the capital's location ended when Jefferson's followers supported Hamilton's program for federal assumption of state debts in return for an agreement to locate the national capital along the Potomac River. George Washington personally selected the site of the nation's permanent capital in 1791. Located close to the geographic center of the original 13 colonies, the city was named Washington and the allotted 100 square miles area was named, District of Columbia. Construction began on the White House in 1792 and on the Capital the following year. The U.S. government was officially transferred here in 1800, when Congress held its first session in Washington. Thomas Jefferson was the first president to be inaugurated in the new Capital. Pierre Charles L'Enfant's design for the city consisted of a physical framework for the sitting of major government buildings (particularly the White House and Capital) and a grid street pattern overlaid by broad radial avenues, with a series of squares and circles reserved for monuments. The barely completed Capital of the new nation was captured along with the White House and burned in 1814, by the British during the War of 1812, but they were soon reconstructed. Washington, DC's first great period of development took place following the Civil War. The city's continuing growth, tied to the expansion of governmental functions, accelerated during the 1930's and particularly after World War II.
Troy
Troy is a city which existed over 4.000 years and known as the center of ancient civilizations. For many years people believed that it was the city mentioned only in the tales and never existed until it was first found in the 19th century. Troy (Truva in Turkish) is located in Hisarlik near Canakkale province where the remains of this once-great city can be visited. What was left are the remains of the destruction of Schliemann, the famous German archaeologist or a treasure hunter as some people call him. Today, an international team of German and American archaeologists bring the Troy of the Bronze Age back to life under a sponsored project by Daimler - Benz, and another Turkish team is at law wars with Russia and Germany to get back the stolen Trojan treasures.
Angkor Wat
This ancient city in Cambodia was the center of the Khmer empire that once ruled most of Southeast Asia. This empire went extinct but not before building amazing temples and buildings that were reclaimed by the jungle for hundreds of years. Though this place is packed with tourists, it’s still breathtaking to see. Temple regions to the north and south see far fewer tourists than the main temple group. The best time to visit is early in the morning before the tour groups arrive. The most popular temples are Angkor Wat, Bayon, Ta Phrom, and Angkor Thom. In order to really experience the temples, you’ll need to purchase the three or five day pass. Check out here for more information on Angkor Wat tours.
The Pyramids at Giza
Over 3,000 years old and we still don’t have a good idea as to how they built them or how Egyptians got them so precise. The Pyramids align to the stars and the solstices and contain vast chambers we still haven’t opened. They are truly a marvel of human engineering that was fit for kings. The largest one, called the Great Pyramid, was built by the Pharaoh Khufu. Also in this area is the Sphinx, another historical site that baffles researchers with its own mysteries. For additional information, check out this page on the Pyramids.
Tikal
This Mayan city-state is one of the largest and best preserved ruins of the civilization. Located in Guatemala, this place lets you experience your inner-Indy early in the morning or late at night when the tourists go home and it’s just you and the jungle. Tikal was a dominant force in the Mayan world and is a dominate force in archeology today. It’s a wonderful place to explore and deserves at least two days and is easy accessible from neighboring Belize. For more information, visit this site about Tikal tours
Machu Picchu
Located in southern Peru, this fascinating city lies on top of a mountain that’s accessible by train or 4 day trek. It was an important center for the Inca civilization but was abandoned when the Spanish came and is famously referred to as the “Lost City of the Incas.” The location was made a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. Concerns over growing numbers of tourists has led to limitations on tourists there, though only by a fraction of what is necessary. It was also named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007. If you want hike the Inca Trail, check out this site for Machu Picchu tourism information.
SAINT AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA
Don Juan Ponce de Leon, was the first European to see the North American continent on Easter Sunday, 1513. Between 1513 and 1563 the Spanish government launched 6 unsuccessful expeditions to settle Florida. The French succeeded in establishing a Colony on the Saint John’s River in 1564, and in doing so, threatened Spain’s fleets, which sailed along Florida’s shoreline. King Phillip II named Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles as governor of Florida to colonize the territory, and drive out any settlers from other nations. On August 28, 1565, the feast of Saint Augustine, he arrived off the coast of Florida and, with 600 soldiers, came ashore at the site of the Timucuan Indian village of Seloy. The village was fortified by the soldiers and named Saint Augustine. The city was actually founded 42 years before the English Colony of Jamestown, Virginia and 55 years before the pilgrims arrived on Plymouth Rock.
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA
Sacramento, California had a later start in U.S. history. The first settlement in the town was Sutter's Fort in 1839, when John Sutter received a 48,000 acre land grant from Mexico. In 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill, about an hour East of Sacramento, and the 'California or Bust' 1849 gold rush was on, America's greatest migration West. Sacramento flourished as the largest settlement in the gold region. In 1854, Sacramento became the capital of California. The Pony Express made the city the Western Terminus of its route from Saint Joseph, Missouri in 1860. The nation's first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869 with Sacramento as the West end of the line. Sacramento also became a port city by way of the Sacramento River connecting to San Francisco Bay.
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA
In 1611, a settlement was established at Richmond by an expedition from Jamestown. The settlement was wiped out by Indians, but in the 1700's, Richmond, Virgina was chartered as a town. In 1775, Patrick Henry delivered the famous words 'Give me liberty or give me death' in St. John's church during the 2nd Virginia Convention. In 1780, Richmond became the capital of Virginia, and a year later, Benedict Arnold and the British burned the city during the Revolutionary War. The city was rebuilt. Some of the architecture of the city was designed by George Washington and some by Thomas Jefferson. Richmond grew with increased trade and James River traffic. The railroad came in 1831. Large iron mills and foundries were establsihed in the 1830's and 40's. After the beginning of the Civil War, the capital of the Confederacy was moved to Richmond. There were numerous battles in and around Richmond. General 'Stonewall' Jackson was buried were in 1863. Confederate soldiers set fire to the city during their retreat in 1865. General Lee surrendered to Grant soon after, and the Civil War was over. In 1870, Virginia was readmitted to the Union with Richmond as the capital and Union troops left the city. Civil rights strife serviced, but progess was made. Maggie Walker, an African-American businesswoman became the first woman bank president in America in 1903. The city became a supply and distribution center and a banking center with a Federal Reserve Bank in 1914. Philip Morris set up headquarters in 1919. During and after World War II, the city has experienced growth and progress. Much of the older areas and Riverfront have been rennovated
GETTYSBURG, PENNSYLVANIA
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, a little town of 7,000+ inhabitants, about 40 miles Southwest of Harrisburg and 150 miles West of Philadelphia, played an important part in the turning point of the Civil War, July 1-3, 1863. More men fought and died than in any other battle, then and now, in North America. General Robert E. Lee's army of 75,000 men had marched into Pennsylvania in search of much needed supplies and plans to destroy the railroad bridge at Harrisburg, then go on to Philadelphia, Baltimore, and/or Washington. By chance, they met up with a portion of a 97,000 man Union army. Lee began to win the battle while the rest of the Union army was moving in with reinforcements. The Union army then began to take charge of the battle. On the last day, General George E. Pickett, in a desperate attempt to recapture the partial success of the preceding day, spearheaded one of the most incredible efforts in military history - a massed infantry advance of 15,000 Confederate troops across an open field toward the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge. 'Pickett's Charge' marched one mile while being pounded by artillery and rifle fire. They reached their objective, but failed to break the Union line. Gettysburg was the bloodiest battle of the Civil War and resulted in over 51,000 dead.
It is here that President Abraham Lincoln delivered his famous Gettysburg address. Though
It is here that President Abraham Lincoln delivered his famous Gettysburg address. Though
FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA
The Flagstaff, Arizona area was inhabited 1,400 years ago by the Anasazi Indians who built pueblo dwellings East and Northeast of today's town. They left 700 years ago, because of extended dry seasons and drought. Other Indian cultures later lived and traded nearby. In the 1850's, the Army explored the area looking for the best route to build a wagon road across the area. On July 4, 1876, the nation's centennial, a flag was hung on a tall pine that was stripped of its branches. It became a landmark for travelers along the road. When the railroad arrived in 1881, the city was officially named Flagstaff. The nearby forest provided a supply of wood for construction and railroad ties. Lumber became a big business and Flagstaff grew. The Lowell Observatory was built in 1894 (the planet Pluto was discovered from here in 1930). The city was a transportation hub and, in the 1920's, with the building of Route 66, 'The Mother Road' from Chicago to the California Coast, Flagstaff became a major stop along the way. At 7,000 feet above sea level, the city is cooler than most of Arizona and has attracted many who want to escape the desert heat. The San Francisco Peaks outside of town provide a scenic backdrop to the city.
DENVER, COLORADO
In November 1858, a party of prospectors discovered gold, and Denver, Colorado's capital, (named after James Denver, Governor of the Territory), was born. Through the 1800’s and into the 20th century, Denver grew from a mining town to an agriculture center with breweries, bakeries, meatpacking and other food-processing plants. Today, Denver is a sprawling metropolis, with skiing and tourism, electronics, computers, aviation and the nation’s largest telecommunications center as its economic base.
Denver is also known as the 'Mile High City', the 15th step on the State Capital building is 5,280 feet above sea level
Denver is also known as the 'Mile High City', the 15th step on the State Capital building is 5,280 feet above sea level
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The Great Chicago Fire of 1871, Al Capone, Richard Daley, Wrigley Field, the stock yards, Union Pacific, Montgomery Ward, and Michael Jordan have all contributed to the rich and colorful history of Chicago, Illinois.
Led by a group of friendly Indians, French Missionaries and Explorers, were the first Europeans to arrive in the Chicago area. The city's name is derived from the Indian name, 'Che-Cau-Gou', for the river running into Lake Michigan. In 1818, Illinois was admitted to statehood. Chicago was incorporated as a town in August, 1833. The Great Chicago fire started on Sunday, October 18, 1871, resulting in the deaths of over 300 people, 90,000 became homeless, and propery loss of $200 million. Legend has it that Mrs. O'Leary's cow knocked over a lantern which started the fire.
Led by a group of friendly Indians, French Missionaries and Explorers, were the first Europeans to arrive in the Chicago area. The city's name is derived from the Indian name, 'Che-Cau-Gou', for the river running into Lake Michigan. In 1818, Illinois was admitted to statehood. Chicago was incorporated as a town in August, 1833. The Great Chicago fire started on Sunday, October 18, 1871, resulting in the deaths of over 300 people, 90,000 became homeless, and propery loss of $200 million. Legend has it that Mrs. O'Leary's cow knocked over a lantern which started the fire.
CHEYENNE, WYOMING
Cheyenne, Wyoming has pretty much always been a crossroads since the early times of the plains Indians, the city's name echoing the name of one of those tribes. In 1867, the Union Pacific set up camp in Cheyenne while building the nation's first transcontinental railroad. Cattle ranching was big in the area, attracting wealthy investors from the East. The Cheyenne to Deadwood stage traveled a North/South route. Later, U.S. Highway 30, called the Lincoln Highway, the nation's first coast-to-coast rock road, passed through town in the early 1900's, and was later paved.
CHATTANOOGA, TENNESSEE
Chattanooga, Tennessee, a Creek Indian word for Lookout Mountain, was named in 1837, for the town that the Western and Atlantic Railroad reached from the East Coast. The railroad made Chattanooga a strategic city during the Civil War. In 1962, Union forces stole the locomotive 'The General' and America's Great Locomotive Chase ensued. During the Fall of 1863, Union and Confederate armies clashed and engaged in some hard fighting near the city and at Chickamauga in Northern Georgia. Over several months, Chattanooga served as a retreat and refuge for both armies at different times, with the Union army later in seige and held there by the Confederates until reinforcements arrived and finally drove the Confederate army South. The collective battles are known and remembered as the battle of Chickamauga and Chattanooga. This battle is generaly considered the beginning of the end to the Civil War. 124,000 fought and 34,000 lost their lives. General Sherman then used Chattanooga as base for his Atlanta Campaign and march to the sea. After the war, Chattanooga quickly rebuilt with the iron and steel industry, increased railroad traffic, warehousing and distribution of cotton and other farm products. The boll veevil destroyed the cotton industry in the 1920's, but other industries prevailed after the depression years of the 1930's. Bandleader, Glenn Miller, immortalized the words 'Chattanooga Choo Choo', and Bessie Smith, a native of the city, became one of the greatest blues singers.
CHARLOTTE, NORTH CAROLINA
The city of Charlotte, NC was founded in 1755 at the crossroads of an old Indian path. This site is now the "Square" in the center of modern downtown Charlotte, at the streets of "Trade" and "Tryon." In 1780 the British army occupied the Charlotte area. They called Mecklenburg County a "Hornet's Nest" of rebellion because of the opposition to British rule among the local Scots/Irish folks. After the Revolutionary War, settlers came to Charlotte in search of a new life. The discovery of gold in Mecklenburg County made Charlotte a boom town in the 1820's. The years before the Civil War saw growth for Charlotte. Although not a site for any major battles, the Civil War had an effect on Charlotte -- North Carolina sent and lost more troops than any other state in the Confederacy to this war. The U.S. government built a training camp for "Dough Boys" at the beginning of World War I near Charlotte, named it Camp Greene, for the Revolutionary War hero, Nathaniel Greene. During World War II, the Charlotte Quartermaster Depot started up and became a major recyclying and supply depot for 37 military facilities in the Carolinas, Virginia and West Virginia. At the peak of wartime activity, the Quartermaster Depot employed 2,500 civilians under a staff of 80 Army officers. A shell factory was also built to supply ammunition for the war effort. Charlotte weathered through the later desegregation years and civil rights strife.
CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA
group of British settlers arrived in 1670 at what is today known as Battery Park, and Charleston, South Carolina (originally called Charles Town in honor of King Charles II of England) was founded. Within just a few years, Charleston became one of America's leading and most sought-after cities.
Because of its strategic location among many rivers and near the Atlantic Ocean, both the military and the shipping industry have played important roles in Charleston's history. Charleston’s rich mud was the perfect environment for the cultivation of rice and on high ground was indigo, the original source of blue dye for denim. Cotton also became a big crop in the South. Once the means of creating wealth became obvious, the cry for field labor promoted expansion of the English slave trade. On July 4th, 1776, revolution aroused the citizenry. Three signers of the Declaration of Independence owned homes in Charleston. President George Washington visited in 1791. The Exchange where he was entertained, the house where he stayed, and the church where he prayed, are all open to the public today.
Because of its strategic location among many rivers and near the Atlantic Ocean, both the military and the shipping industry have played important roles in Charleston's history. Charleston’s rich mud was the perfect environment for the cultivation of rice and on high ground was indigo, the original source of blue dye for denim. Cotton also became a big crop in the South. Once the means of creating wealth became obvious, the cry for field labor promoted expansion of the English slave trade. On July 4th, 1776, revolution aroused the citizenry. Three signers of the Declaration of Independence owned homes in Charleston. President George Washington visited in 1791. The Exchange where he was entertained, the house where he stayed, and the church where he prayed, are all open to the public today.
Puuhonua O Honaunau
Detail of Ku Kaili and Ku Ki'i Akua Statues at Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park in Hawaii. Puuhonua O Honaunau, built in 1550, served as a place of refuge for defeated Hawaiian warriors or for those who had broken sacred laws.
Stonehenge
This Neolithic monument is about 5,000 years old and sits within the landscape of Salisbury Plain three kilometres west of the town of Amesbury, Wiltshire, in Southern England. It is not a single structure but consists of a series of earth, timber, and stone structures that were revised and re-modelled over a period of more than 1400 years. even though no one really knows what this edifice was actually built for,One million people see this monument every year
Death Valley
In winter time the desert receives a thin layer of snow occassionaly. In summer temperature ranges from 95 to 110 F. The hottest place in North America (120F), Death Valley is a part of Mojave desert. The name is derived from the effects of mirage caused by dry, hot sands of the desert. The first white settlers entered the death valley in 1870's. The death valley is also infamous for its ghost towns
Mohave or Mojave desert
The original inhabitants of a large area in southern California, Utah, Arizona and Nevada were a native American tribe called Mohave. Named after Mohave tribe, the Mohave or Mojave desert contains the hottest places in north America. The golden colored sand dunes in the desert rise beyond 700 feet above desert floor. The high wind blowing from the Mohave river carried fine sand to the desert. A booming sound is heard as the sands slide down the slopy dunes. The desert receives less than 6 inches of rain in a year.The Mojave desert contains the Mojave national preserve, Joshua tree national park and Death valley national park. World's largest thermometer in Mojave desert is a major tourist attraction.
Bryce Canyon
Waterfall in a desert? Yes! a 126 foot waterfall year round Bryce Canyon is relatively rare and unknown in a desert. South Utah houses the calf creek recreation area. Boulder, a remote town in Utah, had mail and supply delivery by mule train till recently. With improvements in good paved road over Boulder Mountain, visitors may easily proceed from Bryce Canyon to reach Capital Reef National Park from Bryce Canyon.
Grand Canyon National Park
Grand Canyon National Park is a world famous US heritage site occyping a large area in Colorado, Arizona, US. While the area is a desert basin, forests are abundant in upper heights. Colorado river flows within the canyon. Grand Canyon is a rare example of diverse ecosystems. Enjoy Grand Canyon National Park on a vacation trip. Tourist activities in Grand Canyon area are backpacking, ferry and raft trips, hiking, bird and wildlife watching, fishing, photography and ranger organised activities. In addition to other activities, mule riding is most sought after, only if you qualify. Mule rides are arranged from south Rim. Mule trips require 2 years advance booking. If you are shorter than 140 cm or heavier than 91 kg or pregnant you disqualify for a mule trip. Take a helicopter or airplane service.
wolf creek pass
Pagosa springs and Treasure falls can be reached by road in San Juan river valley, Colorado. Wolf Creek Ski Area, famous for its most snow in Colorado, is a long steep climb up the hill. Road construction is going on in Wolf Creek Pass, San Juan National Forest.
Yosemite waterfalls
The breathtaking beauty of Yosemite waterfalls attracts tourists from far and wide in US. World's fifth tallest waterfall in Yosemite national park in US, makes thunderous sound in spring.In autumn, Yosemite fall reduces to a mere trickle.
BRAZILIAN HISTORY
BRAZIL: HISTORY HIGLIGHTS
- During some centuries the actual territory of Brazil has been home of some hundreds of thousands of Indians, belonging to Tupi, Ge, Aruak, and Carib groups. Human territorial density was very low, and the concentration of power and the degree of organization was far under those attained by Incas or the Mayas.
- April 22, 1500: Pedro Alvares Cabral, a Portuguese explorer, reached the coast of Brazil, at Porto Seguro, in Bahia, where they met the Pataxos Indians, the first tribe ever contacted by Europeans in South America. They still can be visited locally.
- The name of Brazil is associated to the name of a particular tropical hard wood, explored by the first Portuguese.
- Indian population was highly scattered in the territory. Calculations diverge substantially, ranging from 1 to 5 million.
- The insufficient number of Indians (aggravated by diseases and warfare with colonialists) stimulated the Portuguese to the importation of African slaves.
- In the first half of the seventeen century, the Dutch and the French have also settled themselves in Rio de Janeiro and Recife region, but not for many years. The Portuguese expelled them, and many of the Dutch settled in Brazil moved to a new colony on the island of Manhattan. Brazil is, by this way, connected to the New York City formation.
- African slaves were, at first, mainly workers of sugar plantations. The sugar was the first big business line implemented in Brazil, by the Portuguese.
- Significant numbers of slaves escaped from the sugar plantations, and found independent «quilombos» in remote areas. Portuguese military expeditions against them, failed often. Final destruction of quilombos was only achieved in late 1600, by the Bandeirantes, a well organized south Brazilian force, based in Sao Paulo region, largely responsible for the unity of Brazil.
- The relation between the African slaves and the Portuguese colonialists hasn’t attained the bitterness and the white dominance attained in North America. Black people resisted more effectively in Brazil, and their traditions and religion is still well visible in Brazilian states as Bahia.
- Around 1700 began the gold cycle, after this metals discovery, near Minas Gerais, not far from Rio de Janeiro. The gold led to the development of the central interior of Brazil. Rio de Janeiro replaced Salvador da Bahia as the Brazilian capital, in 1763.
- In 1807, King John VI of Portugal took refuge in Rio de Janeiro, after the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon, and Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese empire.
Image on left: D. Pedro I
- The wonders of Rio de Janeiro and the tropical life of Brazil had a so great impact in the royal Portuguese family that its members persist in staying in Brazil even after Napolean was defeated. The popular discontentment in Portugal forced King John VI to return to Lisbon, but, meanwhile, Dom Pedro I – son of the king John VI - and popular Brazilian forces declared the Brazil independence in 1822. “I’m staying”, said D. Pedro I, in defiance of a decree from Lisbon, requiring his return.
Image on left: Tiradentes
- Just thirty years before, in 1789, there was a preliminary movement for brazilian independence, lead by Tiradentes (Tooth Puller, the nickname of a merchant who exercised also the activity of dentist and physician).The rebellion failed, and Tiradentes was publicly hanged in Rio and his body cut into pieces (Tiradentes is, nowadays, a national Brazilian hero, and the date of is martyrdom a national holiday).
- Pedro II (1825 - 1891), has been the second and last emperor of Brazil. He was an intellectual and a reformist, responsible for the abolition of slavery. But is success as a ruler was very limited. After some conflicts with neighbouring countries, discontentment drove Brazil to the republican system. The royal summer palace and facilities can still be visited in Petropolis, a few miles from Rio de Janeiro.
- Near the twentieth century came the rubber cycle, with the subsequent great fortunes in places like Manaus (the rubber plant was an endogenous Amazonian plant). The accumulated fortunes were so great that the richest brazilian rubber barons in Manaus used to light their cigars with bank-notes. Some magnificent monuments of Manaus, as the Opera House, are a testimony of this period. The rubber cycle collapsed with the Asian concurrence, after the «theft» of some rubber Brazilian plants.
- It was followed by the coffee and cattle ranchers cycle. For more than 50 years, Brazilian politics were deeply influenced by these productions, and by the industrialization and the emergence of Sao Paulo – actually an immediate metropolis of more than 40 million people - as the economic and industrial heart of Brazil. Most of the economic power of Brazil is now centred in Sao Paulo, and some adjacent regions like the Minas Gerais state (capital: Belo Horizonte), and, in some extent, Rio de Janeiro.
- In the sixties, a new political capital was established at Brasilia, replacing Rio de Janeiro. The expressed goal was to encourage the development of the interior. During two decades – from mid sixties till mid eighties -, Brazil was ruled by military governments, with some economic success, if we measure it by production growth.
- Democratic government was only restored in 1985. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, elected in 1994, has been responsible for the «Real Plan», an economic plan that has created a new currency (the real) and hold inflation under control.
- During some centuries the actual territory of Brazil has been home of some hundreds of thousands of Indians, belonging to Tupi, Ge, Aruak, and Carib groups. Human territorial density was very low, and the concentration of power and the degree of organization was far under those attained by Incas or the Mayas.
- April 22, 1500: Pedro Alvares Cabral, a Portuguese explorer, reached the coast of Brazil, at Porto Seguro, in Bahia, where they met the Pataxos Indians, the first tribe ever contacted by Europeans in South America. They still can be visited locally.
- The name of Brazil is associated to the name of a particular tropical hard wood, explored by the first Portuguese.
- Indian population was highly scattered in the territory. Calculations diverge substantially, ranging from 1 to 5 million.
- The insufficient number of Indians (aggravated by diseases and warfare with colonialists) stimulated the Portuguese to the importation of African slaves.
- In the first half of the seventeen century, the Dutch and the French have also settled themselves in Rio de Janeiro and Recife region, but not for many years. The Portuguese expelled them, and many of the Dutch settled in Brazil moved to a new colony on the island of Manhattan. Brazil is, by this way, connected to the New York City formation.
- African slaves were, at first, mainly workers of sugar plantations. The sugar was the first big business line implemented in Brazil, by the Portuguese.
- Significant numbers of slaves escaped from the sugar plantations, and found independent «quilombos» in remote areas. Portuguese military expeditions against them, failed often. Final destruction of quilombos was only achieved in late 1600, by the Bandeirantes, a well organized south Brazilian force, based in Sao Paulo region, largely responsible for the unity of Brazil.
- The relation between the African slaves and the Portuguese colonialists hasn’t attained the bitterness and the white dominance attained in North America. Black people resisted more effectively in Brazil, and their traditions and religion is still well visible in Brazilian states as Bahia.
- Around 1700 began the gold cycle, after this metals discovery, near Minas Gerais, not far from Rio de Janeiro. The gold led to the development of the central interior of Brazil. Rio de Janeiro replaced Salvador da Bahia as the Brazilian capital, in 1763.
- In 1807, King John VI of Portugal took refuge in Rio de Janeiro, after the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon, and Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese empire.
Image on left: D. Pedro I
- The wonders of Rio de Janeiro and the tropical life of Brazil had a so great impact in the royal Portuguese family that its members persist in staying in Brazil even after Napolean was defeated. The popular discontentment in Portugal forced King John VI to return to Lisbon, but, meanwhile, Dom Pedro I – son of the king John VI - and popular Brazilian forces declared the Brazil independence in 1822. “I’m staying”, said D. Pedro I, in defiance of a decree from Lisbon, requiring his return.
Image on left: Tiradentes
- Just thirty years before, in 1789, there was a preliminary movement for brazilian independence, lead by Tiradentes (Tooth Puller, the nickname of a merchant who exercised also the activity of dentist and physician).The rebellion failed, and Tiradentes was publicly hanged in Rio and his body cut into pieces (Tiradentes is, nowadays, a national Brazilian hero, and the date of is martyrdom a national holiday).
- Pedro II (1825 - 1891), has been the second and last emperor of Brazil. He was an intellectual and a reformist, responsible for the abolition of slavery. But is success as a ruler was very limited. After some conflicts with neighbouring countries, discontentment drove Brazil to the republican system. The royal summer palace and facilities can still be visited in Petropolis, a few miles from Rio de Janeiro.
- Near the twentieth century came the rubber cycle, with the subsequent great fortunes in places like Manaus (the rubber plant was an endogenous Amazonian plant). The accumulated fortunes were so great that the richest brazilian rubber barons in Manaus used to light their cigars with bank-notes. Some magnificent monuments of Manaus, as the Opera House, are a testimony of this period. The rubber cycle collapsed with the Asian concurrence, after the «theft» of some rubber Brazilian plants.
- It was followed by the coffee and cattle ranchers cycle. For more than 50 years, Brazilian politics were deeply influenced by these productions, and by the industrialization and the emergence of Sao Paulo – actually an immediate metropolis of more than 40 million people - as the economic and industrial heart of Brazil. Most of the economic power of Brazil is now centred in Sao Paulo, and some adjacent regions like the Minas Gerais state (capital: Belo Horizonte), and, in some extent, Rio de Janeiro.
- In the sixties, a new political capital was established at Brasilia, replacing Rio de Janeiro. The expressed goal was to encourage the development of the interior. During two decades – from mid sixties till mid eighties -, Brazil was ruled by military governments, with some economic success, if we measure it by production growth.
- Democratic government was only restored in 1985. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, elected in 1994, has been responsible for the «Real Plan», an economic plan that has created a new currency (the real) and hold inflation under control.
BOZEMAN, MONTANA
Bozeman, Montana is located in the Gallatin Valley, through which William Clark, from the Lewis and Clark Expedition, along with Sacagawea, the Shoshone Indian guide, came in 1806 on the expedition's divided return route. They recorded the existence of a fertile valley and many beaver dams. They named the Madison, Jefferson and Gallatin rivers. John Colter from the Lewis and Clark expedition returned to the area to hunt and trap in 1808. In 1864, John Bozeman lead settlers from the Oregon trail up to Montana to settle at the new town of Bozeman or to stop on their way through to the gold fields of Virginia City, Montana. Just a few years later the Sioux and Cheyenne Indians forced the closure of the Bozeman Trail for some time to stop further immigration. Fort Ellis was established in 1868 to provide protection. Cattle were also driven here from Texas to start the Montana cattle industry. Frontiersman, Jim Bridger brought a wagon train to the area. The Bridger Range of mountains and Bridger Canyon North of town are named for him. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established about 80 miles to the Southeast. The Northern Pacific Railway completed a line through the Bozeman Pass in 1883, paralleling the Bozeman Trail. Montana State University was founded in 1893.
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
Established in 1630 by John Winthrop, governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Boston, Massachusetts was an early center of American Puritanism. The nation's oldest public school, Boston Latin, was opened in 1635 and Harvard, the nation's oldest college, was founded at Cambridge in 1636. Boston became the cradle of American independence from Britain in the late 18th century. Protestors stirred up anti-British sentiment after the British government approved a series of taxes on colonists to pay the cost of the French and Indian War. Boston merchants and workers resisted the Stamp Act of 1765, and viewed it as “taxation without representation.” In 1770, British soldiers fired on a mob and killed five citizens in what became known as the "Boston Massacre". Aggravating the situation further, patriots protested a tax on tea by tossing shiploads of tea into the harbor in 1773, in what came to be known as the "Boston Tea Party." The Battle of Bunker Hill, fought in Charlestown on June 17, 1775, was one of the first battles of the American Revolution, and Boston was occupied until the British withdrew on March 17, 1776.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
Atlanta, the capital and largest city in Georgia, is located near the Chattahoochee River at the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. It was founded as 'Terminus' in 1837 as it was the end of the Georgia and Atlantic railroad line. It was later renamed Marthasville, and then Atlanta in 1845. In 1864, General Shermon's army was delayed in his 'March to the Sea' from Chattanooga, at the battle of Kennesaw Mountain Northwest of Atlanta, then later battles in Atlanta. The city was burned, partly by the South's troops upon evacuation, not wanting the Union army to take advantage of certain facilities, and partly by the Union troops on their way through. The city rebuilt quickly after the war and, in fact, was called the 'Phoenix of the South', symbolizing its rise from ruin. The Coca-Cola Company was founded in Atlanta in 1892. Margaret Mithell wrote the epic, 'Gone With the Wind', Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was born here and preached in the Ebenezer Baptist Church
ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND
Annapolis, capital of the state of Maryland, has the oldest state capital building still in use in the U.S. It was completed in 1779, and actually served as the capital of the United States for 9 months after the end of the Revolutionary War. It was here that the new U.S. Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris, officially ending the War of Independence with Great Britian. The nation's 1st president, George Washington, was here.
The City Dock once served the important shipping industry and now has shops and taverns. The Market House at the City Dock once served as an auction block for African slaves, but now is home to food markets and the like. The U.S. Naval Academy was established in Annapolis in 1845. The downtown area has many historic sites and old restored buildings.
AMARILLO, TEXAS
Located in the Texas Panhandle Amarillo, Texas was first settled in 1887. Amarillo is a Spanish word which means "yellow", named from the color of the sub-soil. Industry in Amarillo thrived in the early years, primarily because of railroading and cattle. As the Texas oil industry expanded, Amarillo became a big player - it has the world's largest natural gas development and provides pipelines to many large cities and thousands of towns connecting all the way to the Atlantic coast. Amarillo became a major stop along the "Mother Road", Route 66 from Chicago to Los Angeles. Palo Duro Canyon State Park with more than 16,000 colorful acres about 1/2 hour south of Amarillo has a bit of history of its own. It has been inhabited for approximately 12,000 years, originally by the Clovis and Folsom people who hunted large herds of mammoth and giant bison. Later, came Apaches, Comanches, and Kiowas. Early Spanish explorers passed through the canyon. Indian/white man battles took place in 1874. From 1876 until 1890, most of the canyon belonged to the J.A. Ranch operated by Col. Charles Goodnight who was a prominent cattleman in the Amarillo area. The land was later deeded to the state.
Cape Town
Cape Town is situated at the tip of the African Continent. The only way to understand and enjoy Cape Town is by experiencing the unique range of multicultural lifestyles and scenic national surroundings for yourself.
During the summer season, Cape Town is filled with holiday makers enjoying the hot weather, sunny beaches and beautiful scenery. So, if you want to spend your time during holiday season, it is best to make reservations as soon as possible. Before reaching the place, have a rough idea about the places around Cape Town, which you want to visit
Alexander the Great
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Alexander the Great
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Alexander the Great, one of the world's greatest military commanders, was born in 356 BC in Pella - Macedonia, the son of King Philip II of Macedonia and Olympids, daughter of King Neoptolemos. The legend says that he was born the same night when Herostratus, a lunatic who lived in Ephesus, burnt down the Temple of Artemis. Between 342 and 340 BC his tutor was the philosopher Aristotle. Alexander had already distinguished himself in battle at Chaironaia in 338 BC when he secured the throne as Alexander III by eliminating his rivals after the death of his father in 336 BC at the hands of Pausanias, possibly a hired assassin. Appointed Commander of the Corinthian League he moved first against the Thracians and the Illyrians and put down a rising by the Thebans (335 BC) in Greece. In 334 BC Alexander, with his army of 35-40 thousand men, embarked on a campaign against the Persians, crossing the Hellespont (Dardanelles), winning the battle on the Granikos in the spring, occupying Gordion (remembers the story of him cutting the legendary Gordian knot), then marching over the Taurus mountains to Cilicia and defeating Darius III, the Persian king, in November of 333 at Issus, north of present-day Iskenderun. This left the way open to Egypt where he founded the city of Alexandria and had his divine origins and claim to power confirmed by the oracle of Zeus Ammon at the Siwa oasis.